Bloom, B. (1996). Parent survey: The experience of parenting a child with disabilities (Clearinghouse No. EC 304707). Saskatchewan, Canada. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 392234).

This is the second part of a four-part study that used qualitative methods and descriptive statistics to examine child mental retardation from the perspective of the family. Ninety-five mothers of children with mental retardation were questioned using both a questionnaire and open-ended questions to allow them to articulate their own experiences in their own words. The data were analyzed with regard to the children's and mothers' needs and experiences, including those in education. In addition, these experiences were compared with those of families from part one of the study. The report also offers recommendations in terms of attitude change and policy change. These recommendations support the current levels of understanding regarding the "best practices" for giving services to families and children with disabilities. (11 references).

Key words: Child rearing, parent/child relationship, educational experience, parent/school relationship, family relationship.

Briggs, F. (1995). Developing personal safety skills in children with disabilities (Clearinghouse No. EC 304578). Maryland. (ERIC Document Reproduction No. ED 391329).

This guide was designed to provide general background information and practical curriculum ideas for teaching children with disabilities personal safety skills in the area of child sexual abuse. The guide is divided into two parts. Part 1 examines the history and effective educational programs for child protection, reasons why children with disabilities especially need personal safety skills, and curriculum development. It also looks at strategies for maximizing parental participation, managing a child's disclosure of abuse, and providing therapy for the victims. Part 2 presents activities, work sheets, and teaching methods for addressing the development of self-esteem, assertiveness skills, coping skills, body image and body awareness, an understanding that some body parts are private, feelings awareness, and how to encourage a dialog about these things. Two appendices also present suggestions for integrating personal safety into the curriculum and additional reasons for the protection of children with disabilities. (115 references).

Key words: Disabilities, child abuse curriculum, prevention safety, self-care skills, emotional development, teaching methods, sexual abuse.

Cohen, L.G. (1997). Early literacy activities: Experiences of rural families of children with disabilities (Clearinghouse No. RC 021018). In Promoting progress in times of change: Rural communities leading the way (Clearinghouse No. RC 020986). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 406117).

This study examined the early literacy experiences of rural disabled children ages 3-8. The data originated from a subset of the National Household Education Survey of 1995 and included families both with and without disabled children. Families were asked questions about their race/ethnicity, education level, native language, presence of children with disabilities, child and family literacy activities, and children's grade level. The results showed that among other things, the incidence of disabled children was higher among parents with less than a high school education. In addition, black children had a higher incidence of disabilities than did other racial and ethnic groups. With regard to early literacy, over half the children both with and without disabilities were read to every day by a family member, and three quarters of the children were read to on a regular basis each week. The results also indicated that during the primary grades, families who had disabled children were as involved with early literacy activities as families with nondisabled children. However at the preschool level, children with disabilities were engaged in early literacy activities with family members to a lesser extent than preschool children without disabilities.

Key words: Early childhood education, family involvement, parent/child relationship, rural/urban differences, family role.

Grolnick, W.S., Benjet, C., Kurowski, C.O., & Apostoleris, N.H. (1997). Predictors of parent involvement in children's schooling. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 538-548.

This study examined three different types of parental involvement and the factors that might predict the occurrence of each type. Parental involvement was categorized into school involvement (i.e., attendance at school events), cognitive involvement (i.e., engaging the child in cognitive-intellectual activities), and personal involvement (i.e., interest and knowledge of school activities). The factors predicting involvement were divided into three levels: individual factors (parents' personal efficacy, child difficulty); contextual factors ( stress, social support); and institutional factors (teacher attitudes). The results of the study found, among other things, that mothers from single parent families were less involved than those from two-parent families. Also, teacher practices were found to have the strongest effect when individual and contextual factors are optimal. This indicates that families with high stress levels may not respond to teacher efforts to involve them in the same way that less stressed families do. Overall, this study identifies the multidimensional nature of parent involvement and stresses the need for schools to use multiple pathways for encouraging family participation in schooling.

Key words: Parent role, parent participation, school, children, educational involvement.

Healy, J.M. (1995). Nurturing the growing brain. NAMTA Journal, 20(1), 44-66.

This article examines the factors that influence the physiological development of children. The quality of both the family environment and the parent-child relationship was found to have a significant effect on the neurological development of young children. Parents are encouraged to develop thinking skills, problem-solving skills, and language skills in their children. Practical suggestions and techniques are provided to assist parents in using meaningful conversation and interaction to facilitate the development of these skills. The article also discusses two neurologically-based disorders – attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and dyslexia – and explores a range of environmental factors that may be possible causes of these diseases.

Key words: Attention deficit disorders, early childhood education, learning disabilities, parent-child relationships, environmental influences.

Higgins, C. (Ed.). (1995). Dads and disability [Special issue]. Families and Disability Newsletter, 6(3).

This is a theme issue that focuses on the relationship between fathers and their children with disabilities. A study of 86 Kansas fathers of children with and without disabilities ages 5-8 was conducted in order to identify more options for fathers wishing to increase their involvement with their children. Approximately half of the 86 fathers included in the study had children with mental retardation. The study evaluated parenting competence surveys and measured time spent in various activities. The results indicated that having a child with a disability did not seem to alter the father's concept of his parental competence or the amount of time spent caring for his child. The results suggested that these fathers identified their priorities for their children, found activities that respond to these priorities, talked more with their children, and used a problem-solving orientation such as finding ways to adapt toys. The newsletter also provides contact information, a brief description of seven resources, and a vignette describing the coping strategies of a father with a severely brain damaged daughter. There is also a discussion of how fathers may feel left out and suggestions for involving fathers more with their special needs children.

Key words: Child rearing , parent-child relationship, parent role, parent attitudes, coping with disabilities, mental retardation.

Jacobson, A. (Ed.). (1996, February). Annual conference on parent education proceedings. A review of the 4th annual conference on parent education proceedings held at the University of North Texas, Denton, TX. (Available through the Center for Parent Education, College of Education, University of North Texas, P.O.Box 13857, Denton, TX 76203).

The goals of this 2-day interdisciplinary conference were to present a spectrum of program models, curriculum, and knowledge related to parent education, parent involvement, and parenting. It was also developed to provide in-depth training in parent education and to promote interaction and exchange of ideas. This document includes abstracts and summaries from a variety of interest sessions, research forums, and workshops. Topics that were covered at the conference include parent educator collaboration, foster children, child rearing practices, promoting academic achievement, and the classroom teacher's role. Also discussed were child-adolescent conduct disorders, divided families, incarcerated mothers, and sibling relationships. Additional areas of interest were literacy, parent-child relationships during early adolescence, and parenting children with Down Syndrome.

Key words: Child rearing, children, disabilities, family environment, parent/child relationship, parenting skills, parent participation, and parent/student relationship.

Lange, C.M. (1995). School choice and students with disabilities: Parent perspectives and expectations. Research Report No. 15. Enrollment options for students with disabilities (Clearinghouse No. EC 304 634). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota College of Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 392 203).

In this qualitative study, the parental expectations for students with disabilities were examined. The parents of 18 children and adolescents who transferred their child to a different school participated in an in-depth interview. The issues that were addressed included the student's history of special education, reasons for transfer, delineation of student needs, parental expectation of the child's school, parental expectations of the child's teacher, student change after the transfer, and parental satisfaction. The results indicated that the needs discussed most often by parents centered on accommodation and adaptation in their child's program. The parents also emphasized the need for help in personal/social adjustment, the need for a warm supportive environment, and some sort of home-school communication. (16 references).

Key words: Decision making, disabilities educational policy, parent attitudes, parent participation, parent/school relationship, access to education.

League, S.E., & Ford, L. (1996, March). Fathers' involvement in their children's special education program. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Association of School Psychologists, Atlanta, GA.

This study examined family involvement in children's special education programs by focusing on the involvement of 9 fathers in the special education programs of their children ages 5 to 16. Subjects were interviewed individually and as part of focus groups. The results showed that fathers felt that they did not receive the necessary communications from the school or the teacher regarding their children. In addition, the fathers believed that parent involvement is important for motivating and encouraging their child, cutting down on the child's misbehavior in school, and acting as an advocate for the child in the school. This study also looked at the fathers' level of satisfaction with the school and how factors such as the importance of classroom behavior management, progress in academic areas, and a positive school's climate can impact on the parents' attitudes.

Key words: Academic achievement, classroom environment, disabilities, parent/child relationship, parent/school relationship, parent role, parent participation.

Lillie, T. (1995). Mandating father involvement: Implications for special educators (Clearinghouse No. EC 303926). South Dakota. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 381978).

This paper examines various issues concerning mandated father involvement with their children, especially as this involvement affects children with special needs. One issue that is examined involves the history of the status of fathers, how it has changed, and why father involvement is an factor. Another issue looks at the current regulations at the federal level that explicitly provide for or mandate father involvement. Also discussed are the various court decisions that encourage or mandate father involvement. Finally, the implications of mandated father involvement are presented and discussed from the perspective of special educators. Two current and contrasting theories on mandated father involvement are presented: one that favors father involvement and one that favors ultimate maternal control over child-rearing. This paper contains a table that identifies the federal regulations concerning fathers' responsibilities, especially regarding their almost exclusive emphasis on financial responsibility. Recent court decisions concerning fathers of children with disabilities from various states are summarized and there are suggestions for encouraging more inclusive father involvement. (38 references).

Key words: Parent-child relationship, financial support, legal responsibility, parent role, parent participation, special education, state legislation, disabilities.

Naperstek, N. (1995). The learning solution: What to do if your child has trouble with schoolwork. Dresden, TN: Avon Books.

This book was written specifically for parents of children who may have learning problems. A learning problem is defined to exist when there is a discrepancy between people's expectations and a child's academic performance. The book was intended to increase parent's knowledge about school resources along with the effectiveness of their interactions with school personnel. In the chapters, the author discusses labels, the origin of learning difficulties, and common school problems. He explains academic support services, special educational support services, alternatives to traditional intervention, and emotional support services. There is a guide for parents on asking the right questions, using questionnaires, and how to get a good psycho-educational evaluation. The book ends by providing specific tutoring strategies for reading and mathematics, behavior modification, and motivating techniques. A section also lists a variety of resources and organizations that are available to parents. (18 references).

Key words: Learning difficulties, parent roles, parent support, special education, tutoring strategies.

Raddish, M.. (1995). Nutritional intake in children with disabilities compared to typical children (Clearinghouse No. PS 023 825). Kentucky. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 388 452).

This study compared the feeding problems of children with disabilities to a sample of typical children. Subjects were 50 children ages 3-5 in the state of Kentucky – 25 of which were without disabilities. Data was collected from parent/guardian interviews, case records, medical histories, and a food frequency questionnaire. A Health and Nutrition Assessment Inventory for children with feeding disorders was done with both groups. Results showed that compared to typical children, the children with disabilities were shorter, weighed less, had a greater incidence of poor oral motor skills, had more dental problems and weaker tongue muscles, and spent less time eating. This study implied that children with special needs are at an increased risk for nutritional deficiencies and may require more careful monitoring of dental health needs. The authors suggest that the present study documents the need for a nutritionist as a vital member of the educational team. (9 references).

Key words: Feeding problems, preschool children, preschool education, disabilities, nutrition.

Severe, S. (1996). How to behave so your children will, too! New York: Greentree Publishing.

This book was written as a parenting guide for parents and anyone who works with children. The book uses examples and stories drawn from the author's experiences which many parents will be able to relate to. It provides parents with specific and positive strategies to replace their own behavior with patterns that produce more cooperative behavior in their children. The chapters cover a variety of topics including how to be consistent, manage anger, prevent arguments and power struggles, and how to teach children to listen. The author also provides sensible and useful activities for parent and teacher training, counseling, and consultation with each topic that is covered.

Key words: Parenting skills, children, behavior modification, training, anger management.

Tucker, M.A., & Fox, R.A. (1995). Assessment of families with mildly handicapped and nonhandicapped preschoolers. Journal of School Psychology, 33(1), 29-37.

This study compared and contrasted parental attitudes towards behavior and development in families with and without disabled children. A total of 125 families of preschoolers were interviewed – 65 had children with mild handicaps and 60 had nonhandicapped children. The families were interviewed and compared using the reports from the Parent Behavior Checklist and the Child Behavior Checklist. The results indicated that mothers of the mildly handicapped sample had significantly lower developmental expectations than did mothers of the nonhandicapped sample. In addition, parents of mildly handicapped preschoolers saw them as displaying higher levels of internalizing and total behavior problems than did the parents of the other group of children.

Key words: Behavior disabilities, parent-child relationship, parent influence, educational development.

Turbiville, V.P. (1995). Fathers and family-centered early intervention. Infants and Young Children, 7(4), 12-19.

This article reviews a variety of studies on the father-child relationship and its influence on personal development. Fathers have been found to have a positive influence on their children's emotional development. In addition, a satisfying relationship can also impact positively on the father's personal well-being and contentment. The article provides strategies for facilitating the inclusion of fathers in early intervention service delivery. These include specific techniques and methods for involving fathers in both play and verbal interactions with there children.

Key words: Disabilities, early childhood education, parent-child relationship, parent role, parent participation, parent influence.